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South Korea faces a critical juncture in its waste management strategy, marked by an acute shortage of landfill space and the impending nationwide ban on direct landfilling of household waste by 2030, with the metropolitan area facing this restriction as early as 2026. This policy shift is complicated by a significant deficit in incineration capacity, particularly in densely populated urban centers, leading to an over-reliance on more expensive private facilities and persistent public opposition to new infrastructure development. While South Korea has achieved commendable recycling rates, this success alone has not averted the current disposal crisis, highlighting a need for a more integrated and diversified approach to residual waste.
An analysis of global best practices in Germany, Sweden, Japan, Switzerland, and Brazil reveals comprehensive strategies that extend beyond high recycling rates to encompass robust circular economy frameworks, advanced waste-to-energy conversion, innovative public engagement, and strong producer responsibility. These nations demonstrate that sustainable waste management is not merely an environmental endeavor but a strategic economic imperative, fostering resource security and new industries.
Drawing from these international exemplars, this report outlines strategic recommendations for South Korea. These include accelerating its transition to a comprehensive circular economy, diversifying and decentralizing waste treatment infrastructure with a focus on advanced technologies, enhancing public participation through stronger incentives and education, fostering innovation and international collaboration, and strengthening regulatory frameworks to ensure long-term sustainability and resilience. By adopting these multifaceted approaches, South Korea can transform its waste management challenges into an opportunity to establish itself as a global leader in resource-efficient and environmentally responsible practices.
South Korea's journey in waste management reflects a dynamic evolution, transitioning from rudimentary disposal methods to sophisticated systems. However, despite significant advancements, the nation now confronts a pressing crisis centered on landfill scarcity and an urgent need to redefine its waste treatment infrastructure.
South Korea's waste management trajectory has undergone substantial transformation over several decades. Initially, practices involved open dumping, which gradually evolved into safer disposal methods. This progression further led to a strong emphasis on recycling and the conversion of waste into energy.1 Since the late 1980s, the Ministry of Environment (MoE) has been instrumental in shaping national policy, introducing a series of programs and regulations. These initiatives prioritized waste reduction at its source, actively promoted reuse and recycling, encouraged energy recovery from waste, and ensured safe disposal practices. Waste minimization efforts, particularly for household waste, were strategically initiated at the consumption stage, aiming to prevent waste generation from the outset.1
A pivotal policy reform occurred in 1995 with the full implementation of the Seoul Volume-based Garbage Collection Fee (VGCF) system. This system marked a fundamental shift from a property tax-based fee structure to one where waste generators were charged proportionally to the amount of garbage they discarded.2 This economic incentive proved highly effective, immediately encouraging citizens to actively participate in waste sorting and reduction. The VGCF system's inaugural year saw an 8.4% reduction in domestic waste and a notable 31% increase in recycled waste, underscoring the power of financial mechanisms in driving widespread behavioral change.2 The challenge of securing adequate disposal space has been a persistent issue, becoming a national agenda item as early as 1986 when Seoul's Nanji Island landfill reached over-capacity.2 This historical pressure prompted Seoul to implement policies aimed at reducing its reliance on landfills through a combination of waste reduction, increased recycling, and incineration.2 Furthermore, to address the historical prevalence of illegal dumping of industrial and medical waste—driven by their higher treatment costs compared to household waste—a web-based management system was mandated. This system requires waste businesses to register their treatment records at every stage, from generation to transportation and final disposal, enhancing transparency and accountability.1
South Korea has gained international recognition as a leader in sustainable waste management, evidenced by an impressive recycling and composting rate of approximately 60%.3 In fact, in 2013, the nation was ranked as the second-highest recycling country among OECD members, achieving a 59% rate.4 The national waste disposal policy, known as "jongnyangje," strictly mandates the separation of waste into four distinct categories: landfill waste, organic waste, recyclable waste, and large waste items. This system is reinforced by penalties for non-compliance and rewards for reporting violations, fostering a high degree of citizen participation.3
The effectiveness of these policies is reflected in a significant reduction in daily household waste generated per capita, which decreased from 1.3kg in 1994 to 0.94kg in 2013, representing approximately one-third of the amount produced in 1991.3 However, despite these past successes, projections indicate a steady upward trend in municipal waste generated per capita from 2024 to 2028.5 This suggests that even with robust recycling efforts, the sheer volume of waste generated by evolving consumption patterns and increasing urbanization may be outpacing current reduction strategies.
A particular success story in South Korea's waste management is food waste recycling. The recycling rate for food waste dramatically increased from a mere 2.6% in 1996 to nearly 100% in 2022 3, reaching 95% by 2013.4 This remarkable achievement is largely attributed to the mandatory recycling of food waste through biodegradable bags, with the fees collected from these bags being reinvested into the food waste recycling system.4 As of 2019, household waste disposal methods were predominantly recycling (61.6%), followed by incineration (24.9%), and landfilling (13.5%).1 The proportion of buried waste saw a dramatic decline from 81.2% in 1994 to 9.6% in 2013, while burned waste decreased from 15.3% to 6.4%, and recycled waste surged from 15.3% to 83.2% over the same period.4
More recent data from 2023 for the metropolitan area reveals that out of 36,406 tons of daily household waste generated, 24,689 tons were recycled. The remaining waste included 3,213 tons landfilled, 6,891 tons processed at public incineration facilities, and 1,613 tons at private incineration facilities.7 The South Korean waste management market was valued at USD 25.56 billion in 2023 and is projected to reach USD 42.25 billion by 2030, indicating a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 6.40%.8 Collection services constituted the largest revenue-generating segment in 2023.9 In 2023, the sector comprised approximately 10.24 thousand establishments providing waste collection, treatment, and disposal services.10 South Korea's population reached 51.7 million in 2023, with approximately 81% residing in urban areas, which intensifies the demand for efficient waste handling solutions.8 The nation is notably the most densely populated among OECD countries and ranks fourth globally in waste generated per unit area.11
A critical challenge facing South Korea's waste management system is the severe scarcity of landfill space, a problem exacerbated by high population density and limited land availability. This geographical constraint has made it increasingly difficult and politically contentious to secure new sites for waste disposal facilities. The issue gained national prominence as early as 1986, when the Nanji Island landfill in Seoul reached over-capacity, underscoring a long-standing struggle to find adequate disposal solutions.2 The growing resistance from residents near potential landfill locations, often manifesting as "Not In My Backyard" (NIMBY) opposition, further compounds this challenge.2
In response to this escalating crisis, the Ministry of Environment (MoE) introduced a significant amendment to the waste management law in July 2021. This amendment prohibits the direct landfilling of household waste, a ban set to take effect in the metropolitan area starting in 2026 and in other regions from 2030.7 Under this new regulation, all waste, with the exception of recyclables, must first undergo incineration, and only the residual ash from this process will be permitted for landfilling.7 This policy aims to drastically reduce the volume of waste sent directly to landfills, but it simultaneously places immense pressure on the nation's incineration infrastructure.
The impending direct landfill ban highlights an immediate and critical shortage of waste incineration facilities, particularly within the densely populated metropolitan area.7 Public incineration facilities are currently operating at their maximum capacity, leaving little room for increased throughput.7 The total available capacity from all private incineration facilities nationwide, at 2,802 tons per day, is insufficient to process the current volume of waste destined for landfill in the metropolitan area, which stands at 3,213 tons per day.7 This represents a substantial capacity deficit that must be urgently addressed before the ban is fully implemented.
The expansion of incineration capacity is severely hampered by strong opposition from residents, which frequently leads to protracted administrative lawsuits and makes site selection exceptionally challenging. The process for establishing new facilities is notoriously lengthy, typically spanning 8 to 10 years.7 For instance, the Mapo district incineration facility project in Seoul is currently stalled due to resident lawsuits, and numerous planned projects in Gyeonggi Province have yet to even select a site.7 This resistance underscores that while South Korea has achieved remarkable success in recycling, this accomplishment has not translated into sufficient public acceptance or infrastructure for managing the remaining, non-recyclable waste. The country's high recycling rates, while commendable, may have inadvertently created a situation where the focus on recycling overshadowed the critical need for robust residual waste treatment infrastructure, leading to the current disposal bottleneck.
Excessive reliance on private incineration facilities introduces significant risks. Should a private facility face bankruptcy or cancel contracts, it could trigger a severe waste crisis.7 Furthermore, private incineration is considerably more expensive, with bidding prices around 180,000 won per ton, plus an additional 50,000 to 100,000 won per ton for transportation. This contrasts sharply with public incineration, where local governments only bear operating costs, and landfilling, which costs approximately 150,000 won per ton.7 Waste experts emphasize that merely postponing the direct landfill ban will not resolve these underlying systemic issues. Instead, they advocate for comprehensive measures, including the construction of more sorting facilities to reduce the volume of waste requiring incineration, thereby addressing the problem at an earlier stage of the waste hierarchy.7
The following table provides a detailed breakdown of household waste management in South Korea's metropolitan area as of 2023, illustrating the current distribution across different disposal methods and the critical capacity gap.
Table 1: South Korea's Metropolitan Area Household Waste Management (2023)
| Category | Daily Volume (Tons) |
|---|---|
| Daily Household Waste Generated (Metropolitan Area) | 36,406 |
| Daily Household Waste Recycled (Metropolitan Area) | 24,689 |
| Daily Household Waste Landfilled (Metropolitan Area) | 3,213 |
| Daily Household Waste Processed at Public Incineration Facilities (Metropolitan Area) | 6,891 |
| Daily Household Waste Processed at Private Incineration Facilities (Metropolitan Area) | 1,613 |
| Available Capacity from All Private Incineration Facilities (National) | 2,802 |
Source: 7
This table clearly illustrates the challenge: the 3,213 tons of waste currently landfilled daily in the metropolitan area will need an alternative treatment method once the ban takes effect. The national private incineration capacity of 2,802 tons is insufficient to cover this volume, indicating a pressing need for new infrastructure or significant shifts in waste management practices.
Recognizing the inherent scarcity of natural resources and the limited space available for waste disposal facilities, the Korean government is actively accelerating its transition towards a circular economy, or "resource circulation society".1 This strategic shift is driven by a clear understanding that a traditional linear "take-make-dispose" economic model is unsustainable for a nation heavily reliant on imported resources and facing acute land constraints. The escalating costs associated with traditional disposal methods, particularly the high expense of private incineration, further underscore the economic imperative of this transition.7
A key initiative underpinning this commitment is the "circular economy (CE) 9 project," a comprehensive strategy unveiled to promote circularity across nine major industries. This project is designed not only to reduce carbon emissions but also to enhance the stability of domestic supply chains for critical resources, thereby bolstering national economic resilience.12 The core objectives of the CE9 project include reducing resource consumption in production, extending product lifespans, and maximizing resource recycling post-use.12 Specific initiatives under this umbrella encompass expanding pyrolysis oil production from plastic waste, developing advanced waste plastic depolymerization and plasma pyrolysis technologies, maximizing the use of iron scrap, recycling rare metals, and establishing a robust framework for battery reuse and recycling.8
International collaboration plays a vital role in this commitment, as evidenced by the EU-Korea Eco-Design Cooperation Forum held in July 2025. This forum highlighted Korea's "K-Eco Design" initiatives and the 3rd Basic Plan for Resource Circulation, signifying accelerated efforts towards a low-carbon, circular economy through smart resource management, digitalization, and the adoption of green standards.13 The financial commitment to these initiatives is substantial, with the Ministry of Environment's 2024 budget allocating 5 billion won for research and development in secondary battery recycling and 60 billion won to support green infrastructure exports.14 This demonstrates a proactive approach to transform waste from a costly liability into a valuable economic asset and a potential area of exportable expertise, aligning environmental policy directly with long-term industrial competitiveness and national resilience. The transition to a circular economy is thus not merely an environmental aspiration but a strategic national economic imperative for South Korea.
Examining how other leading nations manage their waste provides valuable lessons and potential pathways for South Korea. Several countries have developed highly effective systems, integrating advanced technologies, strong policy frameworks, and active public participation.
Germany stands as a global exemplar in waste management, particularly in its commitment to a circular economy. Its robust system is primarily governed by the Circular Economy Act (KrWG) and the Packaging Act.15 The KrWG establishes a five-level waste hierarchy that systematically prioritizes prevention, reuse, recycling, energy recovery, and finally, disposal. This framework aims to minimize waste generation and maximize resource recovery.15
A cornerstone of German policy is Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), which is explicitly embodied in the Packaging Act. This principle mandates that producers and importers bear financial and operational responsibility for the collection, recycling, treatment, and disposal of their products once they reach their end-of-life.15 The Product Responsibility Scheme (PRS) further ensures that waste prevention and recycling considerations are integrated from the initial product design phase.15 A prominent example of this system is the "dual system" (Duales System Deutschland), with "Der Grüne Punkt" managing packaging waste on behalf of manufacturers, ensuring widespread compliance and efficiency.15
Germany consistently achieves impressive recycling and recovery rates, widely recognized as a frontrunner in waste policy. Reported recycling and composting rates hover around 64% 18 and 67%.19 By 2018, the overall waste recovery rate, encompassing energy recovery, recycling, and reuse, reached an remarkable 81%, with 69% of waste specifically being recycled.15 The country has set ambitious targets, aiming for at least 65% Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) reuse and recycling by 2020. Specific goals include increasing plastic packaging recycling to 58.5% (from 36% in 2019) and 63% by 2022, and achieving a 90% recycling target for metal, glass, paper, and cardboard.15
Emphasis on waste prevention and source segregation is fundamental to Germany's success. Mandatory waste sorting at the source is a deeply ingrained practice, with citizens diligently separating waste into various designated containers.15 Initiatives like the "Germany Biowaste Bin Campaign" actively support local communities in promoting high-quality biowaste segregation, specifically targeting the prevention of contamination from plastics and other materials.15 The 'polluter-pays-principle' is effectively implemented through Pay-As-You-Throw (PAYT) systems, which charge city dwellers based on the amount of waste they generate. These systems offer lower fees for separately collected recyclable waste, providing a strong financial incentive for waste reduction and proper sorting.15
While prioritizing recycling, Germany also operates an efficient waste-to-energy system. As of 2015, the country had 76 incineration plants.15 In 2017, energy recovery accounted for 12% of waste disposal and treatment.15 These facilities adhere to stringent environmental standards, including the Industrial Emissions Directive, which mandates the application of Best Available Technology (BAT) to minimize emissions.15 Germany's waste management and recycling market is a substantial and growing sector, with projected revenues exceeding EUR 70 billion by 2024.17 This robust industry contributes significantly to job creation and economic growth. Environmentally, Germany has achieved substantial greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions, cutting 56 million tCO2e since 1990, largely through the ban on untreated organic waste disposal and increased recycling and energy harvesting.15 Recycling also plays a crucial role in conserving natural resources and reducing dependence on virgin materials.16
Sweden is globally recognized for its innovative and highly sustainable approach to waste management, which fundamentally redefines waste not as a problem but as a valuable resource. The country excels in transforming discarded materials into clean energy that provides heating for homes and powers industries.21 Sweden's substantial investment in waste-to-energy (WtE) infrastructure has been so successful that the country now imports over 1.3 million tons of waste annually from other European nations, including the UK, Norway, Ireland, and Italy, to ensure its incinerators operate optimally.21 This practice generates approximately $100 million USD annually from imported waste, turning a waste management solution into a profitable venture.22 These WtE plants provide heating to over 1 million homes and electricity to about 250,000 homes, significantly reducing reliance on fossil fuels.22
Sweden has achieved remarkable success in minimizing landfill waste, with less than 1% of its household waste ending up in landfills.22 This achievement is largely attributable to a comprehensive ban on landfilling organic and combustible waste, implemented in 2005.23 In 2023, approximately 39% of municipal waste was recycled, and a significant 59% was converted into energy.24 Sweden has set ambitious new recycling targets of 55% by 2025 and 60% by 2030, with a specific goal of 70% for packaging waste by 2030.21
Public participation is deeply embedded in Swedish daily life, contributing significantly to the nation's waste management success. Educational efforts begin at a very young age, making recycling a natural part of community culture.22 Recycling centers are conveniently located within 300 meters of residential areas, ensuring accessibility and ease of participation.21 Citizens are incentivized to recycle through various rewards, such as vouchers for using neighborhood recycling machines.21 A unique and innovative feature in new urban developments in Stockholm involves waste chutes that directly channel segregated household waste into WtE incinerators, effectively transforming residents' trash into energy for their own homes.21
Sweden has a long history of implementing Producer Responsibility Laws (EPR), which were introduced in 1994, making businesses responsible for the collection and recycling of packaging materials.24 EPR schemes are now mandatory for a wide array of waste streams, including cars, tires, medicines, batteries, and newspapers, and were expanded in 2023 to include tobacco, wet wipes, balloons, and fishing equipment.21
A significant focus is placed on food waste management. Since 2023, food waste collection has become mandatory nationwide, with a goal to collect 70% of food waste by 2029.21 This organic waste undergoes anaerobic digestion to produce biogas (a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide), which, after upgrading, is utilized as vehicle fuel or for industrial processes, including heating and electricity generation, effectively replacing fossil fuels.21 Sweden's waste management strategy is a cornerstone of its circular economy model, with an ambitious national goal to become one of the first fossil-free welfare nations by 2045.23 This comprehensive approach generates multiple benefits: revenue from recycling domestic and imported waste, provision of low-cost energy for homes, and large-scale community engagement, demonstrating a truly integrated and sustainable system.21
Japan's waste management philosophy, deeply influenced by its "Mottainai" (no food waste) culture, prioritizes not just efficient and sanitary collection but primarily the reduction of waste generation, followed by extensive reuse and recycling.25 The country has achieved a significant decrease in waste generation, with per-capita municipal solid waste generation at a notably low 335.8 kg/person in 2017, which is substantially lower than averages in Europe and the United States.25
Japan has developed robust, product-specific recycling systems based on Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR). A prime example is the ELV (End-of-Life Vehicle) Recycling Act, which mandates responsibilities for manufacturers and importers for difficult-to-recycle components such as airbags and shredder residue.25 Similar EPR principles apply to home appliances, hazardous chemical substances in electronics, and containers/packaging, ensuring that producers cooperate with recyclers for high-quality material recovery.25
The nation boasts high recycling rates for specific materials, such as aluminum beverage cans (84.7% in 2014) and steel cans (92.9% in 2013), which are among the highest globally.25 While the government reports an overall plastic recycling rate of 84%, it is important to note that this figure includes thermal recycling, where plastic is burned for energy. Only 27% of collected plastic is reprocessed into usable material, indicating room for improvement in material-to-material recycling.26 Despite these efforts, Japan's reported overall recycling rate of 19.9% for 2021 for municipal solid waste is lower compared to some OECD countries, suggesting ongoing challenges in comprehensive recycling across all waste streams.27
Incineration is the most widely used waste disposal method in Japan, driven by the country's mountainous geography and limited space for landfills.26 In 2017, Japan had approximately 1,200 incineration facilities, with 358 of these plants also generating electricity in 2014.26 By 2021, the number of incineration plants slightly decreased to 1028, but the incineration capacity per plant increased, highlighting advancements in waste-processing technologies. Furthermore, the number of plants equipped with power generation facilities increased, with 38.5% having this capability in 2021, up from 36.6% in 2020. This integration of waste-to-energy processes not only reduces waste volume dramatically (by up to 90%) but also provides a renewable source of energy, aligning with Japan's sustainability goals.27
Japan's transition to a circular economy is implemented through the Sound Material-Cycle Society (SMCS) Act, enacted in 2000. This Act promotes a sustainable society by reducing natural resource use, encouraging cyclical product use, and lessening environmental burdens through collaborative efforts of national and local authorities, businesses, citizens, and non-profit organizations.28 The SMCS Act outlines a hierarchy of actions: reduce, reuse, recycle, thermally recycle, and ensure proper waste disposal.28 The "3Rs + Renewable" (reduce, reuse, recycle, renewable energy) framework is a key part of Japan's Global Warming Countermeasures Plan.28 Public involvement has been crucial, with government initiatives encouraging participation in establishing an SMCS and promoting the 3Rs. Educational activities and meticulous trash separation programs have fostered high individual environmental awareness and community responsibility.27
Switzerland is globally recognized for its highly efficient and sustainable waste management system, serving as a benchmark for many countries.29 Its success is attributed to a combination of strict regulations, innovative technologies, and strong citizen engagement.29
At the core of Switzerland's system is the "polluter-pays principle," which holds individuals and businesses financially accountable for the waste they generate.29 In practice, households are required to use taxed waste bags, with the price covering collection and processing costs. For example, a 35-liter bag costs between 1 and 2 Swiss francs, which strongly incentivizes waste reduction and better sorting.29 The city of Zurich is a concrete example where these taxed waste bags are mandatory for household waste, leading to a significant reduction in landfill waste.29 This system has been particularly effective since Switzerland banned the landfill disposal of combustible waste in 2000.29
Switzerland boasts one of the highest recycling rates globally, with approximately 52% of municipal solid waste being recycled.29 This is achieved through a well-organized and accessible infrastructure for sorting and processing materials like paper, glass, PET bottles, aluminum, and organic waste. The country has a dense network of collection points, including containers for various materials and recycling centers for specific waste like electronics or batteries.29 PET bottle collection stations are commonly found in supermarkets, facilitating easy recycling for citizens.29 The environmental benefit of Swiss recycling has doubled in the last 30 years, saving over 500,000 tonnes of CO2 equivalent annually.20
For non-recyclable waste, Switzerland utilizes modern incineration plants equipped with energy recovery systems, known as waste-to-energy (WtE) plants.29 These facilities convert waste into electricity and heat, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and supporting the country's energy transition.29 Swiss WtE plants are highly efficient, burning waste at high temperatures and capturing harmful emissions. The energy generated powers district heating networks and supplies electricity to homes and businesses.29 Since 2010, Switzerland has achieved a 0% landfilling rate for municipal waste, a direct result of its 2000 policy requiring all non-recyclable combustible waste to be incinerated.31
Switzerland's strong environmental commitment is largely due to a proactive public education and awareness strategy.29 The government collaborates with cantons, municipalities, and private companies to implement initiatives that encourage responsible behaviors in waste sorting, recycling, and reduction.29 National and local campaigns promote best practices and the environmental benefits of recycling. Accessible recycling infrastructure, along with detailed guides and educational materials, are provided to citizens.29
Switzerland is dedicated to promoting a circular economy model, which aims to reduce waste by extending product life cycles through repair, reuse, and recycling.29 This approach minimizes resource extraction and environmental impact. Key strategies include promoting Repair Cafés and second-hand stores, advanced recycling infrastructures, and the recovery of construction waste, transforming inert waste into recycled aggregates for new sustainable construction projects.29 Legal amendments are coming into force in 2025 to introduce a revised waste treatment hierarchy, prioritizing preparation for reuse and waste recycling over incineration.31
Brazil's waste management system is characterized by its efforts to incentivize recycling and integrate informal waste pickers into a more formal circular economy. The country recycles approximately 70% of the waste produced, demonstrating a serious commitment to waste management and reduction.19
A key policy framework is the National Solid Waste Policy (PNRS), which is closely associated with circularity concepts.32 The PNRS was designed to encourage waste generation reduction, promote reverse logistics and recycling, and establish shared responsibilities for waste management and disposal.32 In addition to the PNRS, other national policies, such as the National Policy on Climate Change and the Energy Policy, also incorporate circular economy principles.32
Brazil has implemented a unique system that incentivizes individuals to participate in its recycling schemes. Citizens can take their waste to designated centers and, in exchange, receive tokens that can be used for transportation or to purchase food.19 This direct financial and social incentive encourages widespread public participation.
Recently, Brazil has taken a significant step towards refining its environmental and economic policies with the publication of a new decree on solid waste import. This crucial legislation redefines the parameters for importing solid waste, introducing quotas for certain materials.33 The primary goal of this new decree is to regulate the importation of waste materials intended for transformation into strategic materials and minerals vital for national development, while simultaneously protecting the livelihoods of local recyclable material collectors (catadores) and boosting domestic recycling efforts.33
A key outcome anticipated from this new regulation is a substantial reduction—estimated at over 90%—in the importation of materials that form the backbone of income for Brazilian waste pickers, including cardboard, glass, PET plastic, aluminum, and iron.33 By limiting imports of these commonly recycled materials, the decree aims to increase demand for domestically collected and processed recyclables, thereby supporting the income and activity of thousands of waste pickers across the country.33 The measure also establishes clear technical, economic, and environmental criteria for any future waste imports and prohibits the use of various recycling credit certificates for imported waste, further prioritizing domestic circularity.33 This demonstrates Brazil's commitment to fostering a true circular economy that aligns industrial development with sustainable practices and social equity.
South Korea's current waste management challenges, particularly the landfill scarcity and incineration capacity deficit, present a critical opportunity for the nation to accelerate its transition to a truly comprehensive and sustainable resource circulation society. Drawing lessons from leading global practices, a multi-pronged strategic approach is essential.
South Korea's existing commitment to a circular economy, as evidenced by the "CE9 project," needs to be intensified and broadened. This involves moving beyond end-of-pipe solutions to fundamentally redesigning consumption and production systems. The nation's high population density and limited natural resources make a linear economy inherently unsustainable, compelling a shift where waste is viewed as a valuable resource and a strategic asset. By embracing circularity, South Korea can enhance resource security, reduce costly import dependencies for both raw materials and energy, significantly mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, and stimulate the creation of new, high-value green industries.
Key actions should include:
The current over-reliance on a few large incineration facilities, coupled with strong public opposition to their siting, necessitates a diversified and decentralized approach to waste treatment. The current deficit in incineration capacity, particularly in the metropolitan area, is a critical vulnerability that must be addressed immediately.
South Korea's success with the VGCF system and food waste recycling demonstrates the power of public participation. This engagement needs to be sustained and expanded across all waste streams.
South Korea's economic structure, heavily reliant on imports of energy and mineral sources, positions innovation and international collaboration as critical drivers for its waste management evolution.
A robust and adaptable regulatory framework is essential to guide and enforce the transition to a circular economy.
South Korea stands at a pivotal moment in its waste management history. The confluence of landfill scarcity, an impending ban on direct landfilling, and an insufficient incineration capacity presents a significant challenge. However, this crisis also serves as a powerful catalyst for accelerating the nation's transition towards a comprehensive circular economy.
The analysis of global leaders like Germany, Sweden, Japan, Switzerland, and Brazil demonstrates that effective waste management extends far beyond high recycling rates. It encompasses integrated strategies that prioritize waste prevention, robust producer responsibility, advanced waste-to-energy solutions, innovative public engagement, and a fundamental shift in economic models to maximize resource circulation. These nations have successfully transformed waste from a liability into a valuable resource, contributing to energy security, economic growth, and environmental sustainability.
For South Korea, the path forward involves a holistic and aggressive adoption of circular economy principles. This requires not only continued excellence in recycling but also a strategic investment in diversified and decentralized waste treatment infrastructure, including modern waste-to-energy facilities and advanced recycling technologies. Crucially, fostering deeper public participation through enhanced incentives and education, coupled with strong regulatory frameworks and a commitment to innovation and international collaboration, will be paramount. By embracing these comprehensive measures, South Korea can overcome its current waste disposal challenges and emerge as a leading nation in sustainable resource management, turning its waste problem into a testament to its ingenuity and environmental stewardship.