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Comparative Study Report on Ominous Numbers and Symbols in World Cultures
Throughout human history, numbers and symbols have transcended their roles as mere quantitative expressions or visual signs to carry a deeper significance. This is part of a universal human tendency to understand and explain the complexity and randomness of the world. Superstitions about ominous numbers and symbols serve as cultural artifacts that embody a community's collective fears and beliefs, often as an attempt to gain a sense of control over an unpredictable fate. These superstitions are not simply irrational beliefs; they are cultural narratives deeply rooted in specific historical events, linguistic associations, and psychological frameworks. This report conducts an in-depth comparative analysis of ominous numbers and symbols found in major world cultures. The primary subjects are the fear of the number 13 in Western culture (Triskaidekaphobia) and the fear of the number 4 in East Asian cultures (Tetraphobia). In addition, the report explores unique cases from Italy, Japan, and Afghanistan. The central thesis of this study is that the origins of these superstitions are largely based on two mechanisms: linguistic homophony and narrative history. This fundamental distinction clearly shows how each culture constructs its perception of good and bad fortune. The following table summarizes the main ominous numbers and their origins that will be discussed in this report. This table provides an overview of the main body, helping to identify whether each case was more strongly influenced by language, history, or social context. Table 1: Ominous Numbers and Their Cultural Origins (Brief Reference) Number Culture/Region Related Phobia Primary Origin Examples of Superstition 13 Western Culture Triskaidekaphobia Narrative/Historical Buildings skipping the 13th floor 4 East Asia Tetraphobia Linguistic Buildings without a 4th floor, avoidance of vehicle license plates with 4 17 Italy Heptadecaphobia Linguistic/Historical Avoidance of the 17th row in theaters 9 Japan Enneaphobia Linguistic Avoidance of the 9th floor in hospitals 39 Afghanistan Triakontenneaphobia Socio-linguistic Avoidance of license plates containing 39
2.1. The Layered Origins of the Number 13
The belief that the number 13 is unlucky in Western culture stems from a long history and a complex set of narratives. The most widely known origin is found in a religious context. In Christian narratives, the Last Supper was attended by 13 people, including Jesus and his 12 apostles.1 The 13th person to attend or to be seated at the dinner is believed to have been Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus.4 This event led to Jesus' crucifixion on ‘Good Friday’, providing a powerful basis for associating the number 13 with bad luck. A superstition arose that if 13 people sit at a table together, it will bring about death, a belief that was widespread in parts of Europe as early as the 1690s.1 In addition to its religious origins, the negative meaning of the number 13 can also be found in Norse mythology. Loki, the god of evil and chaos, appeared as an uninvited guest at a banquet of 12 gods, becoming the 13th guest, which led to turmoil among the gods and the death of Balder, the most beloved of them.2 This mythological narrative supports the idea that the number 13 breaks the perfection symbolized by the number 12 (e.g., 12 apostles, 12 months, 12 zodiac signs), thereby causing misfortune.1 These religious and mythological narratives helped to culturally solidify the negative meaning of the number 13.
2.2. 'Friday the 13th': The Convergence of Ominous Omens
The fear of ‘Friday the 13th’ is a superstition born from the combination of two independent elements with unfortunate meanings: Friday and the number 13.5 The belief that Friday itself is an unlucky day is ancient, even mentioned in Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales in the 14th century. It was considered a day to avoid important activities like starting new work, traveling, or getting married.2 The event most often cited as the origin of 'Friday the 13th' is the arrest of many Knights Templar on Friday, October 13, 1307, on the orders of King Philip IV of France and Pope Clement V.1 This event has been cited as a definitive piece of evidence by believers and in popular culture that Friday the 13th is an unlucky day. However, historical documentation offers conflicting analysis. Some studies suggest this connection to the superstition is a 'modern invention' or a 'misunderstood link' that was only established more recently.2 These conflicting narratives show that superstitions are not fixed, ancient relics, but rather 'living stories' that can be reinterpreted or even fabricated in modern times through popular narratives or novels (e.g., Dan Brown's The Da Vinci Code). This suggests that finding the true origin of a superstition is sometimes less important than understanding how it is used to explain a particular society's fears and anxieties.
2.3. Modern Manifestations and Psychological Basis
Triskaidekaphobia is deeply embedded in the daily life of Western society. It is common for high-rise hotels or apartment buildings to skip the 13th floor, labeling the floor after the 12th as the 14th.2 Some airlines also omit row 13.3 These practices demonstrate that the superstition has become a cultural norm that influences architecture and commerce beyond mere personal belief. There is also a psychological background to this phenomenon. One study suggests that the human brain tends to process even numbers more quickly than odd numbers.6 This phenomenon, known as the "odd effect," can make odd numbers feel more 'thought-provoking,' 'unusual,' and 'unstable' than even numbers.6 This cognitive imbalance may have provided the psychological basis for certain cultures to attach negative narratives to odd numbers like 13. This shows the complex process by which psychology and folklore interact to form and reinforce superstitions.
3.1. The Origin of Tetraphobia: A Phonetic Link to Death
While the fear of 13 in the West has a narrative origin, the fear of 4 in East Asia (Tetraphobia) is rooted in linguistic homophony.7 The core of this superstition is the fact that the pronunciation of the number '4' is very similar or identical to the word for 'death' in major East Asian languages such as Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. Chinese: The word for 'four' (四, sì) is almost identical in pronunciation to the word for 'death' (死, sǐ), differing only in tone.7 In Mandarin Chinese in particular, 14 (十四, shí sì) can be considered even more unlucky as it sounds like 'is dead' (是死, shì sǐ), and 74 (七十四, qī shí sì) sounds similar to 'angered to death' (气死, qì sǐ).8 Japanese: The word for 'four' (四, shi) is pronounced exactly the same as the word for 'death' (死, shi).8 For this reason, the number 4 is often pronounced 'yon' or avoided.11 Korean: The word for 'four' (사, 四) is pronounced exactly the same as the word for 'death' (사, 死).8 Vietnamese: Although a Han-character cultural region originating from Chinese, Tetraphobia does not exist in Vietnam because the pronunciation of '4' (tứ) has a different tone from the word for 'death.'8 This linguistic similarity demonstrates how important phonetic associations are in how each culture perceives misfortune. Table 2: Analysis of Pronunciations for '4' and 'Death' in East Asian Languages Language '4' (Number) Pronunciation/Romanization 'Death' (Word) Pronunciation/Romanization Phonetic Similarity Mandarin Chinese 四 sì 死 sǐ Only tone differs Japanese 四 shi 死 shi Identical Korean 四 sa 死 sa Identical Cantonese 四 sei 死 sei Identical
3.2. Societal and Commercial Impact: Widespread Avoidance
Tetraphobia manifests widely in many aspects of East Asian society. In the real estate market, it is common for buildings to skip floors with the number 4, such as 4, 14, and 24, and some even skip the entire range from 40 to 49.7 Apartments on these floors are known to be priced lower or are more difficult to sell.7 This shows that superstition has become a cultural factor that affects real economic value, not just a simple belief. The tendency to avoid the number 4 is also evident in daily life, including phone numbers, addresses, and car license plates.7 In cities like Hong Kong and Singapore, where both Western and East Asian cultures coexist, it is not uncommon for both the 13th and 14th floors to be omitted.13 This is a clear example of how cultural beliefs are accepted and reflected in market logic. Meanwhile, the attitude towards this superstition varies across different social sectors; for example, while the People's Liberation Army of China uses the number 4 freely in military equipment designations, the navies of Taiwan and South Korea refrain from using the number 4 when assigning pennant numbers to their ships.8
3.3. Psychological Reality: A Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
The superstition about the number 4 in East Asia is not just a cultural curiosity; it extends to a psychological phenomenon that directly impacts human health. A study that analyzed US health records found that for Chinese and Japanese Americans, the chance of suffering a fatal heart attack on the 4th of the month was 7% higher than on other days.6 This is powerful evidence that a cultural belief in an ominous number or date can induce psychological stress, and this stress can manifest as a physiological reaction (a heart attack). This means that superstition is not just an irrational fear but a potent force that can actually affect human health and lifespan. This case moves into the fields of cultural anthropology and psychobiology, and it is a significant finding that scientifically demonstrates the impact of cultural beliefs on the human mind and body.
4.1. The Italian Case: The Curse of VIXI (Number 17)
While most Western countries avoid 13, Italy considers 17 to be the most ominous number.14 This belief can be traced back to ancient Rome, where the Roman numeral for 17 (XVII) could be rearranged to spell the Latin word "VIXI" ("I have lived").14 This phrase was often inscribed on Roman tombstones, and it carries the implication of "my life is over," making it an ominous sign of death. In Italy, because of this, theaters or hotels may not have a 17th row or floor, and Friday the 17th is considered particularly unlucky, often referred to as 'the month of the dead.'15
4.2. The Japanese Case: The Symbol of Suffering (Number 9)
In Japanese culture, in addition to the number 4, the number 9 is also considered unlucky.11 This is because the pronunciation of '9' (ku, 九) is the same as the word for 'suffering,' 'agony,' or 'torture' (ku, 苦).12 Due to this phonetic association, some hospitals in Japan skip the 9th floor, and people tend to avoid giving gifts in sets of nine.12
4.3. The Afghan Case: 'Dead Cow' and the 'Curse of 39'
In Afghanistan, the number 39 is considered 'cursed' or a 'badge of shame.'18 This is because the number 39 is phonetically similar to the local slang term 'morda-gow,' which means 'dead cow,' a derogatory term for a pimp.19 Because of this social stigma, car license plates, cell phone numbers, and apartment numbers containing 39 are nearly impossible to sell or are often avoided.19 This case shows that superstition can have a 'socio-linguistic' origin, reflecting the taboos and values of a specific society, beyond simple linguistic homophony.
5.1. The Black Cat: From Divine Being to Devil's Familiar
The superstition about black cats demonstrates a dramatic shift in cultural perception. In ancient Egypt, cats were revered as divine beings, and anyone who accidentally killed a cat could be sentenced to death.21 However, in medieval Europe, black cats were linked to witches and were branded as devil's familiars or 'vessels of the devil.'21 This is connected to an official document, Vox in Rama, released by the Catholic Church, which made false claims that heretics were worshiping black cats as part of their initiation rituals.21 The superstition that 'a black cat crossing your path brings bad luck' stems from the fear that the cat might be a witch in disguise or the devil himself.22
5.2. The Broken Mirror and a Shattered Soul
The superstition that breaking a mirror brings seven years of bad luck originated in ancient Rome.23 At the time, people believed that a mirror was not just a reflective surface but held a person's soul.23 Therefore, it was thought that breaking a mirror would shatter the soul, making it unable to protect the body from misfortune.24 The 'seven years' in this superstition comes from the Roman belief that the human soul completely regenerates every seven years.23
5.3. Other Cultural Aversions
Walking under a ladder: This superstition is believed to have originated from the idea that a ladder leaning against a wall forms a triangle, symbolizing the Christian 'Holy Trinity.' Walking under it was seen as an act that would break the sanctity of the Trinity.25 Spilling salt: The belief that spilling salt brings bad luck in Western cultures is linked to Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper, where Judas is depicted as having spilled salt. Throwing salt over one's left shoulder is done to blind the devil, who is believed to be waiting there, thus warding off misfortune.25
6.1. The Mechanisms of Superstition: A Comparative Summary
Through a broad analysis of ominous numbers and symbols worldwide, this report has shown that these superstitions are formed and reinforced through two primary mechanisms: linguistic homophony and narrative history. Tetraphobia in East Asia, the fear of the number 9 in Japan, and the superstition about 39 in Afghanistan are all rooted in the phonetic similarity between words and number pronunciations. In contrast, Triskaidekaphobia in the West gained its ominous meaning through the narrative accumulation of religious, mythological, and historical events. These superstitions do not exist solely in the human mind. As we have seen, the case of the number 4 and its link to an increased risk of heart attacks demonstrates the measurable impact of cultural beliefs on human physiological responses. This suggests that superstition is not just a folkloric subject but a phenomenon that requires a deep understanding of public health and psychology. Furthermore, modern practices like skipping floors in buildings or avoiding certain numbers on car license plates show that these superstitions are not merely relics of the past but have a real power to shape commercial decisions and social behavior.
6.2. The Enduring Power of Belief in Modern Society
Despite the age of information and scientific progress, superstition remains a powerful cultural force. This is because superstitions provide a framework for interpreting an uncertain and unpredictable world. When unfortunate events occur, people tend to look for meaningful patterns to understand and explain them.9 Superstitions provide such patterns, offering a sense of psychological comfort. They also function as part of a community's identity and shared narrative. Just as the origins of 'Friday the 13th' are reconstructed in modern times, or the 'curse of 39' is combined with social stigma, superstitions evolve and adapt to continue their vitality. In conclusion, superstitions about ominous numbers and symbols are not simply irrational behaviors. They are dynamic cultural phenomena intricately woven with a society's language, history, psychology, and social structure. These superstitions serve as a window into the universal values and fears of each culture, providing a profound insight into the ways humans make sense of the world. 참고 자료 The Origins of Friday the 13th | TIME, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://time.com/7021210/friday-13th-origins/ Triskaidekaphobia -- from Wolfram MathWorld, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Triskaidekaphobia.html The Quirky Number 13 - Mary D'Alba, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://marydalba.com/blog/13 ELI5: Why is 13 an unlucky number in Western culture? : r/explainlikeimfive - Reddit, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/3fw4sy/eli5_why_is_13_an_unlucky_number_in_western/ Friday the 13th (superstition) | EBSCO Research Starters, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/friday-13th-superstition Why odd numbers are dodgy, evens are good, and 7 is everyone's ..., 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/apr/13/favourite-number-survey-psychology Why the Number 4 is Considered Unlucky in Hong Kong - Lover Florals, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://www.loverflorals.com/hk-rose-bouquet-blog/why-the-number-4-is-considered-unlucky-in-hong-kong Tetraphobia - Wikipedia, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetraphobia Numbers, Culture, and Superstition - VOA, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://www.voanews.com/a/a-13-2007-07-13-voa30/352263.html Japanese Elevators Don't Have The 4th Floor Button. Here's Why. - The Shortform - Medium, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://medium.com/the-shortform/japanese-elevators-dont-have-the-4th-floor-button-here-s-why-ee664229afdf Japanese superstitions - Wikipedia, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_superstitions Lucky and unlucky numbers in Japan - Lingualift, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://www.lingualift.com/blog/lucky-unlucky-numbers-japan/ Tetraphobia - Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetraphobia Why is Friday 17th unlucky in Italy - Abode Italian Property, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://www.abodeitaly.com/blog/why-italians-unlucky-day-is-friday-the-17th Unlucky 17 and other Italian superstitions - Jerry in Italy - WordPress.com, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://jerryinitaly.wordpress.com/2012/01/25/unlucky-17-and-other-italian-superstitions/ The Meaning of Numbers Among Different Cultures | DayBlog - Day Translations, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://www.daytranslations.com/blog/meaning-numbers-world/ List of bad luck signs - Wikipedia, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bad_luck_signs About: Curse of 39, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://dbpedia.org/page/Curse_of_39 Unlucky Numbers Around the World - Adelphi Studio, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://adelphistudio.com/unlucky-numbers-around-world/ Unlucky Numbers Around the World - The Travel Sisters, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://thetravelsisters.com/unlucky-numbers-around-the-world/ The Power of Black Cats: Legends That Haunt Them, Responsible Adoptions, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://www.msj.edu/news/2024/02/the-power-of-black-cats.html www.msj.edu, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://www.msj.edu/news/2024/02/the-power-of-black-cats.html#:~:text=The%20evolution%20of%20black%20cats,path%20was%20bad%20luck%20materialized. Broken Mirror Superstition - How to Avoid 7 Years of Bad Luck!, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://www.twowaymirrors.com/broken-mirror-superstition/ people.howstuffworks.com, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://people.howstuffworks.com/why-is-it-bad-luck-to-break-mirror.htm#:~:text=Some%20people%20believe%20that%20a,protect%20its%20body%20from%20misfortune. 18 Superstitions from Around the World - Google Arts & Culture, 8월 17, 2025에 액세스, https://artsandculture.google.com/story/18-superstitions-from-around-the-world/kAUxTWmzJ9QvLg?hl=en